Design of a Charge-Sustaining Energy Management System for a Free-Floating Electric Shared Bicycle

This article proposes an energy management system (EMS) for shared electric bicycles. The objective is to guarantee assistance the cyclist while avoiding discharging battery. basic working principle exploits cycling efficiency gaps. proposed multilayered EMS specifically tailored a free-floating bike-sharing setting. innermost layer manages and harvesting with of yielding intuitive human–machine interface. middle level modulates so track desired average battery power. adaptive model-based controller designed on control-oriented model bicycle dynamics. A profiling mechanism enables adaptation. outermost loop guarantees long-term robustness by tracking state-of-charge profile. Extensive simulations experimental tests validate this approach in terms usability charge sustenance, proving that paramount importance.